Protect Your Sleep When Work is Calling: How Work-Related Smartphone Use During Non-Work Time and Sleep Quality Impact Next-Day Self-Control Processes at Work.

In view of the rapid development of information and communication technologies, the present study sheds light on how work-related smartphone use during non-work time affects employees' subsequent working day. Specifically, we examine work-related smartphone use and sleep quality as moderators of next-day self-control processes at work. Theorizing that work-related smartphone use and self-control demands deplete a common limited regulatory resource, we suggest a strengthening two-way interaction between work-related smartphone use during non-work time and next-day self-control demands at work in predicting employees' ego depletion at work. Moreover, in a three-way interaction, we analyze whether this interaction depends on employees' sleep quality, assuming that when intensive work-related smartphone use is followed by high-quality sleep, the taxed regulatory resource can replenish overnight. Results from our diary study covering 10 working days (n = 63) indicate that after evenings with high work-related smartphone use, employees experience disproportionate levels of ego depletion when dealing with self-control demands at work. Sleep quality, however, attenuates this interaction. In cases of high sleep quality, next-day self-control processes at work are no longer affected by work-related smartphone use. Based on these findings, we discuss implications for employees and employers regarding work-related smartphone use and the relevance of sleep in replenishing drained resources.

Which daily experiences can foster well-being at work? A diary study on the interplay between flow experiences, affective commitment, and self-control demands.

Previous research has provided strong evidence for affective commitment as a direct predictor of employees' psychological well-being and as a resource that buffers the adverse effects of self-control demands as a stressor. However, the mechanisms that underlie the beneficial effects of affective commitment have not been examined yet. Drawing on the self-determination theory, we propose day-specific flow experiences as the mechanism that underlies the beneficial effects of affective commitment, because flow experiences as peaks of intrinsic motivation constitute manifestations of autonomous regulation. In a diary study covering 10 working days with N = 90 employees, we examine day-specific flow experiences as a mediator of the beneficial effects of interindividual affective commitment and a buffering moderator of the adverse day-specific effects of self-control demands on indicators of well-being (ego depletion, need for recovery, work engagement, and subjective vitality). Our results provide strong support for our predictions that day-specific flow experiences a) mediate the beneficial effects of affective commitment on employees' day-specific well-being and b) moderate (buffer) the adverse day-specific effects of self-control demands on well-being. That is, on days with high levels of flow experiences, employees were better able to cope with self-control demands whereas self-control demands translated into impaired well-being when employees experienced lower levels of day-specific flow experiences. We then discuss our findings and suggest practical implications. (PsycINFO Database Record

Is Job Control a Double-Edged Sword? A Cross-Lagged Panel Study on the Interplay of Quantitative Workload, Emotional Dissonance, and Job Control on Emotional Exhaustion.

Previous meta-analytic findings have provided ambiguous evidence on job control as a buffering moderator of the adverse impact of job demands on psychological well-being. To disentangle these mixed findings, we examine the moderating effect of job control on the adverse effects of quantitative workload and emotional dissonance as distinct work-related demands on emotional exhaustion over time. Drawing on the job demands-control model, the limited strength model of self-control, and the matching principle we propose that job control can facilitate coping with work-related demands but at the same time may also require employees' self-control. Consequently, we argue that job control buffers the adverse effects of quantitative workload while it reinforces the adverse effects of emotional dissonance, which also necessitates self-control. We examine the proposed relations among employees from an energy supplying company (N = 139) in a cross-lagged panel study with a six-month time lag. Our results demonstrate a mix of causal and reciprocal effects of job characteristics on emotional exhaustion over time. Furthermore, as suggested, our data provides evidence for contrasting moderating effects of job control. That is, job control buffers the adverse effects of quantitative workload while it reinforces the adverse effects of emotional dissonance on emotional exhaustion.

Sleep quality and self-control capacity as protective resources in the daily emotional labor process: results from two diary studies.

Daily emotional labor can impair psychological well-being, especially when emotions have to be displayed that are not truly felt. To explain these deleterious effects of emotional labor, scholars have theorized that emotional labor can put high demands on self-control and diminishes limited regulatory resources. On the basis of this notion, we examined 2 moderators of the daily emotional labor process, namely day-specific sleep quality and individual self-control capacity. In particular, in 2 diary studies (NTOTAL = 171), we tested whether sleep quality moderates the influence of emotional dissonance (the perceived discrepancy between felt and required emotions) on daily psychological well-being (ego depletion, need for recovery, and work engagement). In addition, we examined 3-way interactions of self-control capacity, sleep quality, and emotional dissonance on indicators of day-specific psychological well-being (Study 2). Our results indicate that the negative relations of day-specific emotional dissonance to all day-specific indicators of well-being are attenuated as a function of increasing day-specific sleep quality and that self-control capacity moderates this interaction. Specifically, compared with low self-control capacity, the day-specific interaction of emotional dissonance and sleep quality was more pronounced when trait self-control was high. For those with low trait self-control, day-specific sleep quality did not attenuate the negative relations of emotional dissonance to day-specific well-being. Implications for research on emotional labor and for intervention programs are discussed.

Are emotional labour strategies by nurses associated with psychological costs? A cross-sectional survey.

BACKGROUND: Emotional labour is an integral part of the role of nurses with surface and deep acting as the core emotional labour strategies. Surface acting involves the regulation of emotional expression with the aim of bringing it in line with organizational display rules, whereas deep acting aims at modifying the situation or perception of situations in order to change felt emotions, accordingly. OBJECTIVES: Since surface acting is thought to consume more cognitive control resources than deep acting, the study examines whether nurses' cognitive control deficits as a stable personal vulnerability factor exert stronger adverse interactive influences with surface acting on job strain than with deep acting. DESIGN: A cross-sectional questionnaire survey was conducted in combination with absence data referring to a time period of 12 months after administration of the questionnaires. SETTING: A hospital and three nursing homes for the elderly located in a federal state in Germany. PARTICIPANTS: Questionnaires were distributed to the whole nursing staff of which 195 nurses filled in the questionnaire and permitted collecting their absence data (73% participation rate). METHODS: In addition to descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations, confirmatory factor analyses and hierarchical moderated regression analyses were performed. RESULTS: Findings revealed significant positive relations of surface acting and cognitive control deficits with indicators of job strain, whereas deep acting was unrelated to strain. In addition, surface acting was found to interact stronger with cognitive control deficits in its relation to strain than deep acting. Compared to nurses with low levels of cognitive control deficits, the adverse influences of surface acting on burnout, depressive symptoms, and sum of days absent were much stronger when high levels of cognitive control deficits were reported. CONCLUSIONS: Consequently, interventions are needed to inform nurses on the detrimental influences of surface acting and train them in the daily use of deep acting as the healthier emotional regulation strategy. In addition, interventions targeted at the enhancement of the individual capacity for self-control would be beneficial to nurses' health.

Good ergonomics and team diversity reduce absenteeism and errors in car manufacturing.

Prior research suggests that ergonomics work design and mixed teams (in age and gender) may compensate declines in certain abilities of ageing employees. This study investigates simultaneous effects of both team level factors on absenteeism and performance (error rates) over one year in a sample of 56 car assembly teams (N = 623). Results show that age was related to prolonged absenteeism and more mistakes in work planning, but not to overall performance. In comparison, high-physical workload was strongly associated with longer absenteeism and increased error rates. Furthermore, controlling for physical workload, age diversity was related to shorter absenteeism, and the presence of females in the team was associated with shorter absenteeism and better performance. In summary, this study suggests that both ergonomics work design and mixed team composition may compensate age-related productivity risks in manufacturing by maintaining the work ability of older employees and improving job quality.

Job demands and personal resources in their relations to indicators of job strain among nurses for older people.

AIMS: To examine the role of two personal resources (active, problem-focused coping; self-efficacy beliefs) in the relation between job demands and strain. BACKGROUND: Evidence suggests that healthcare staff in general and nurses in particular, are at a high risk of suffering from high levels of job strain. In addition to often examined job-related resources (such as control and social support), personal resources are expected to moderate (i.e. buffer) the relation between job demands and indicators of strain, particularly when there is a functional match between the type of demands and resources. DESIGN: Cross-sectional questionnaire survey. METHOD: A cross-sectional questionnaire survey was conducted (February-April 2010) among staff members of three nursing homes of a municipal organization for residential elderly care located in an urban area of Western Germany. A total of 145 of 251 employees responded to the invitation to participate in the study (57·8% participation rate). Data were analysed by hierarchical moderated regression analyses. RESULTS: Increasing job demands (quantitative and qualitative workload) had adverse effects on emotional exhaustion, psychosomatic complaints, and turnover intentions, whereas nurses' self-efficacy beliefs exerted beneficial effects on all outcomes. Furthermore, findings revealed that active, problem-focused coping interacts with job demands in the prediction of job strain. CONCLUSION: Both research and practice should focus on a closer match between personal resources and job demands to prevent nurses from being strained.

Bright-light effects on cognitive performance in elderly persons working simulated night shifts: psychological well-being as a mediator?

PURPOSE: The present study examined whether the relationship between light exposure and cognitive functioning is mediated by psychological well-being in elderly persons working night shifts. The role of psychological well-being has been neglected so far in the relationship between bright light and cognitive performance. Sleepiness and mood were applied as indicators of psychological well-being. Cognitive functioning was examined in terms of concentration, working memory, and divided attention. METHODS: A total of thirty-two test persons worked in three consecutive simulated night shifts, 16 under bright light (3,000 lux) and 16 under room light (300 lux). Concentration, working memory, and divided attention were measured by computerised tasks. The hypothesised mediators were recorded by questionnaires. RESULTS: Mediation analyses were conducted for estimating direct, total, and indirect effects in simple mediation models. Results indicate that sleepiness and mood did not function as mediators in the prediction of concentration, working memory, and/or divided attention by light exposure. CONCLUSIONS: Sleepiness led to an underestimation of the positive bright-light effect on concentration performance. Mood showed only a random effect due to the positive bright-light effect on working memory. Sleepiness and mood could completely be excluded as mediators in the relationship between light exposure and cognitive functioning. This study underlines that psychological well-being of elderly persons is not a critical component in the treatment of bright light on cognitive performance in the night shift workplace. In summary, it becomes evident that bright light has a strong direct and independent effect on cognitive performance, particularly on working memory and concentration.

The moderating role of cognitive control deficits in the link from emotional dissonance to burnout symptoms and absenteeism.

The present study examines whether cognitive control deficits (CCDs) as a personal vulnerability factor amplify the relationship between emotional dissonance (ED; perceived discrepancy between felt and expressed emotions) and burnout symptoms (emotional exhaustion and depersonalization) as well as absenteeism. CCDs refer to daily failures and impairments of attention regulation, impulse control, and memory. The prediction of the moderator effect of CCDs draws on the argument that portraying emotions which are not genuinely felt is a form of self-regulation taxing and depleting a limited resource capacity. Interindividual differences in the resource capacity are reflected by the measure of CCDs. Drawing on two German samples (one cross-sectional and one longitudinal sample; NTOTAL = 645) of service employees, the present study analyzed interactive effects of ED and CCDs on exhaustion, depersonalization, and two indicators of absenteeism. As was hypothesized, latent moderated structural equation modeling revealed that the adverse impacts of ED on both burnout symptoms and absence behavior were amplified as a function of CCDs. Theoretical and practical implications of the present results will be discussed.

Costs of simultaneous coping with emotional dissonance and self-control demands at work: results from two German samples.

In the present study, we examine interactive effects of emotional dissonance (ED) and self-control demands (SCDs; impulse control, resisting distractions, and overcoming inner resistances) on emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, depressive symptoms, and absenteeism. We derived the prediction of interactive effects from the well-founded theoretical argument that both sources of work stress draw on and compete for a common limited regulatory resource. On the basis of 2 German samples (1 cross-sectional and 1 longitudinal sample; NTOTAL = 367), 7 of the 8 interactions tested were found to explain significant proportions of variance in all 4 outcomes considered over and beyond that accounted for by demographic characteristics, outcome stability (longitudinal sample), and main effects. Consistent with our hypotheses, the positive relations of 1 of both stressors (ED or SCDs) to psychological strain and absenteeism were amplified as a function of the other stressor. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.

Differential effects of decision latitude and control on the job demands-strain relationship: a cross-sectional survey study among elderly care nursing staff.

BACKGROUND: According to the influential Job Demands-Control (JD-C) model developed by Karasek (1979; Karasek and Theorell, 1990), job strain is expected to result from high job demands and low job control as well as an interaction between both job characteristics. Previous research, however, has found such an interaction only rarely or inconsistently.It has been suggested that the conceptualization of the control variable (formerly referred to as decision latitude) may be particularly responsible for the lack of supportive findings. OBJECTIVES: The present study aimed at clarifying this issue by contrasting a focused measure of control with a traditional measure of decision latitude in their relations to job strain of health care workers. The measure of decision latitude encompassed a wide range of job characteristics including control, task variety, and learning opportunities. DESIGN: A cross-sectional questionnaire survey was conducted with job satisfaction, psychosomatic complaints and emotional exhaustion as criterion measures of job strain. SETTING: A supra-regional organization for residential elderly care with 11 nursing homes located in a federal state in Germany. PARTICIPANTS: Questionnaires were distributed to the whole nursing staff, of which 379 filled in the questionnaire during normal working hours (68% participation rate). METHODS: In addition to confirmatory factor analyses, descriptive statistics, and bivariate correlations, hierarchical multiple regression analyses were performed for testing the corresponding interaction effects. RESULTS: Findings confirmed the assumption that the focused measure of control and the traditional measure of decision latitude represent distinct, yet correlated factors. Furthermore, findings revealed a significant interaction effect between job demands and control on all outcomes considered. By way of contrast, there was no equivalent interaction effect between job demands and decision latitude. In line with the JD-C model, the adverse influence of increasing demands on job satisfaction, psychosomatic complaints and emotional exhaustion were reduced with increasing job control. CONCLUSIONS: Extending the opportunities of health care workers to control work scheduling and the way of performing given tasks can make them less vulnerable against the adverse effects of high job demands.

The relation of goal incongruence and self-control demands to indicators of job strain among elderly care nursing staff: a cross-sectional survey study combined with longitudinally assessed absence measures.

BACKGROUND: Formerly unconnected lines of research have shown that both the perceived incongruence between personal and organizational goals and meeting self-control demands at work exert adverse influences on indicators of job strain. OBJECTIVES: Going beyond this research and drawing on recently developed theoretical notions on self-control depleting a limited control resource, the present study examines - in addition to main effects - also interactive effects of both stressors on various indicators of strain that include not only self-report measures (dimensions of burnout, psychosomatic complaints) but also absence data (sum of days absent, absence frequency) as behavioural outcome. DESIGN: A cross-sectional questionnaire survey was conducted in combination with absence data referring to a time period of 12 months after administration of the questionnaires. SETTING: A municipal organization for residential elderly care with six nursing homes located in a large German city. PARTICIPANTS: Questionnaires were distributed to the whole nursing staff of which 242 staff members filled in the questionnaire and permitted collecting their absence data (67% participation rate). METHODS: In addition to descriptive statistics and bivariate correlations, hierarchical moderated regression analyses were performed. RESULTS: Findings revealed significant main effects of both predictors on the criterion measures with signs corresponding to expectations. Over and above these main effects, the two-way interaction between goal incongruence and self-control demands added a significant amount of incremental variance to the prediction of exhaustion, depersonalization, psychosomatic complaints as well as the time lost index of absenteeism. In the measure of absence frequency, this interaction failed to reach significance. As hypothesized, the form of the interactions indicated that the adverse influences of self-control demands are strengthened with an increase in the perceived mismatch between personal and organizational goals. CONCLUSIONS: Improving the fit between personal and organizational goals and strengthening the individual control resource could make health care workers less vulnerable against the depleting effects of meeting self-control demands at work.

Age and gender diversity as determinants of performance and health in a public organization: the role of task complexity and group size.

The influence of age and gender composition on group performance and self-reported health disorders was examined with data from 4,538 federal tax employees working in 222 natural work unit groups. As hypothesized, age diversity correlated positively with performance only in groups solving complex decision-making tasks, and this finding was replicated when analyzing performance data collected 1 year later. Age diversity was also positively correlated with health disorders--but only in groups working on routine decision-making tasks. Gender composition also had a significant effect on group performance, such that groups with a high proportion of female employees performed worse and reported more health disorders than did gender-diverse teams. As expected, effects of gender composition were most pronounced in large groups. Effects of age diversity were found when controlling for gender diversity and vice versa. Thus, age and gender diversity seem to play a unique role in performance and well-being. The moderating role of task complexity for both effects of age diversity and the moderating role of group size for both effects of gender diversity further suggest that the impact of these 2 variables depends on different group processes (e.g., knowledge exchange, variation in gender salience).